2. Environmental Science: Natural Resources part 2
WATER RESOURCES: USE AND OVER-UTILIZATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND
WATER
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country
is for irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic
consumption.
Significant of Water
The significant of water needs no elucidation. It is as under:
(1) It is revealed by the history of human civilization that water supply and civilization
are most synonymous.
(2) Several cities and civilizations have disappeared due to water shortages originating
from climatic changes.
(3) Millions of people all over the world, particularly in the developing countries, are
losing their lives every year from water-borne disease.
(4) An understanding of water chemistry is the basis of knowledge of the multidimensional aspects of aquatic environment chemistry, which involve the sources,
composition, reactions, and transport of the water.
(5) About 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the ocean, which is unfit of the remaining
3%, 2% is locked in the polar ice-caps and only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers,
lakes, streams, reservoirs and ground water which is suitable for human consumption.
Unlike land, which remains available as it is, the availability of water varies from place
to place and time to time. Our country is a monsoon land. The bulk of rainfall is confined
to a brief period of 3-4 months that is from July to October. As such, large part of the
country lacks surface water supply for a greater part of the year.
WATER
Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country
is for irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic
consumption.
Significant of Water
The significant of water needs no elucidation. It is as under:
(1) It is revealed by the history of human civilization that water supply and civilization
are most synonymous.
(2) Several cities and civilizations have disappeared due to water shortages originating
from climatic changes.
(3) Millions of people all over the world, particularly in the developing countries, are
losing their lives every year from water-borne disease.
(4) An understanding of water chemistry is the basis of knowledge of the multidimensional aspects of aquatic environment chemistry, which involve the sources,
composition, reactions, and transport of the water.
(5) About 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the ocean, which is unfit of the remaining
3%, 2% is locked in the polar ice-caps and only 1% is available as fresh water in rivers,
lakes, streams, reservoirs and ground water which is suitable for human consumption.
Unlike land, which remains available as it is, the availability of water varies from place
to place and time to time. Our country is a monsoon land. The bulk of rainfall is confined
to a brief period of 3-4 months that is from July to October. As such, large part of the
country lacks surface water supply for a greater part of the year.
Surface Flow
1. River
Surface flow takes place through 14 major river systems. They are Brahmani,
Bhrahmaputra, Cauvery, Ganga, Godavari, Indus, Krishna, Mahanadi, Mahi, Narmada,
Periyar, Sabarmati, Subarnarekha and Tapti. Between them, the position is as under:
(a) They share 83% of the drainage basin,
(b) They account for 85% of the surface flow,
(c) They house 80% of the total population on the country.
Besides, there are 44 medium and 55 minor river system. These rivers are fast flowing,
monsoon fed and originate in the coastal mountains of the major river viz Brahamputra,
Ganga and Indus basins along with Godavri. They cover more than 50% of the country.Only
4, Brahamputra, Ganga,Mahanadi and Brahmani are perennial. Their minimum discharge
is of 0.47 Mm3/km3 year.
2. Lakes and Ponds
Lakes: Lakes are inland depressions that contain standing water. They may vary in
size from small ponds of fewer acres to large seas covering thousands of square miles. They
may range in depth from a few feet to over 5,000 feet.
In a lake, there are three to five well recognized horizontal strata namely:
(i) Shallow water near the shore forms the littoral zone. It contains upper warm and
oxygen rich circulating water layer zone. The littoral zone includes rooted vegetation.
(ii) Sublittoral zone-extends from rooted vegetation to the non-circulating cold water
with poor oxygen i.e. hypolimnion.
(iii) Limnetic zone is the open water zone away from the shore.
(iv) Profundal zone is the deep-water area beneath limnetic zone and beyond the depth
of effective light penetration.
(v) Abyassal zone is found only in deep lakes, since it being at about 2,000 metres from
the surface.
Pond: Ponds are considered as small bodies of standing water so shallow that rooted
plants can grow over most of the bottom. Most ponds and lakes have outlet streams and both
are more or less temporary features on the landscape the reason is filling, no matter how
slow, is inevitable.
Stratification of Ponds
Ponds have little vertical stratification. In them littoral zone is large than and limnetic
zone and profundal zone. In a small pond the limnetic profundal zones are not found. The
warm top layer, the epilimnion is heated by the sun and homogenised by the wind and other
currents. On the contrary to it, the deep cold layer, the hypolimnion is not heated by sun
and not circulated by wind. The basis upon which the layers are maintained is strictly
thermal and is caused by the fact that the warmer water is lighter than the colder water.
After the formation of a thermocline, no exchange of water occurs between the epilimnion
and hypolimnion.
Physico-Chemical Properties of Lakes and Ponds
Lakes have the tendency to become thermally stratified during summer and winter to
undergo definite seasonal periodicity in depth, distribution of heat and oxygen. Light also
penetrates only to a certain depth, depending upon turbidity.
Kinds of Lakes
On the basis of physical factors and productivity, etc., different classifications of lakes
exist:
(1) Based on temperature
Hutchnson (1957) classified lakes into dimitic, monomictic and polemicist lake.
There are as under:
(i) The dimictic lakes exhibit two overturns every year, while monomictic lakes present
only a single overturn per year.
(ii) The monomictic lakes may be cold monomictic and monomictic.
(2) Cold Monomictic
It is characterized by a circulation only during summer:
(i) Warm Monomictic: It has a circulation in winter as well.
(ii) Polomictic lakes present circulation throughout the year.
Based on the human acid content the lakes of world have been classified into clear
water lakes and brown water lakes,
(a) The brown water contains high humus content.
(b) Clear water takes may be divided into two types as under:
(i) The oligotrophic type
Its water is poor in nutritive plant material and show nearly equal distribution of
oxygen during summer and winter months. Its mud bottom contains little organic material;
(ii) The eutrophic type
It is rich in nutrients. At greater depth below the thermo cline in summer eutrophic
lakes show a considerable reduction in oxygen content and their mud bottom is composed
of typical muck.
3. Lotic Ecosystems or Moving Water
Moving water or lotic ecosystems include rivers, streams, and related environments.
They are of various sizes ranging from Ganga, Yamuna, Hindon, Kali Nadi, Sutlez, Gomti,
etc to the trickle of a small spring. Likewise, there is distinction on the basis of flow. On one
hand there are raging torrents and waterfalls and on the other hand, the rivers whose flow
is so smooth as to be almost unnoticeable. Every river varies considerably over its length,
as it charges from a mountain brook to a large river.
Main Characteristics of Lotic Environment: Moving water differ from lakes and
ponds as under:
(i) Current is a controlling and limiting factor.
(ii) Land water interchange is great because of the small size and depth of movingwater systems as compared with lakes.(iii) Oxygen is almost always in abundant supply except when there is pollution.(iv) Temperature extremes tend to be greater than in standing water.(v) The most distinctive features of moving water ecosystems are those related to theirmotion i.e. the rate of flow and the streams velocity. The rate of flow refers to thevolume of water passing a given observation point during a specific unit of time;It is measured in units such as m3/sec, ft3 or acre-feet/sec.
(a) Rapidly flowing water
Rapidly flowing water can be defined as the portion of the streams in which the flow
is both rapid and turbulent. Consequently everything that is not attached or weighty is
swept away by the current. This includes organisms and sediment particles alike. The
substrate tends to be rock or gravel. The fragments are gradually rounded and smooth by
the water.
(b) Slowly flowing water
A slowly flowing water ecosystem is a very different type of system from the fast
streams. The flow is both slower and more likely to be laminar. The results are that the
erosive power of the stream is greatly reduced, hence, smaller sediment particles (sit) and
decaying organic debris, are deposited on the bottom. Besides, the slow streams have higher
temperature. Consequently, planktonic organisms, espeically protozoans, occur in large
number in this ecosytem. In some moving streams, the bottom muds contain more organic
material than mineral fragments. In slow water streams oxygen concentration is main
limiting factor. The high level of animal activity, along with an active detritus stream.
Besides, the low level of turbulence means that less oxygen is in corporate into the water
at surface. Thus the dissolved oxygen content of a slowly moving stream is likely to be much
lower than that of a fast-moving stream.
4. Estuaries
Water of all streams and rivers eventually drain into the sea. Estuaries is the place
where this freshwater joins the salt water. As such estuaries are the transitional zones
between the sea and rivers and are the sites of unique ecological properties. They are
semienclosed coastal bodies of water that have a free connection with the open and within
which seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater from river. However, all the rivers
are not open into estuaries. Some rivers simply discharge their runoff into the ocean. Estuaries
are not alike. Instead they differ in size, shape and volume of water flow, they are influenced
by the geology of the region in which they occur. As the river reaches the encroaching sea,
the stream carried sediments are dropped in the quiet water. These accumulate to form
deltas in the upper reaches of the mouth and shorten the estuary.
The Position of Surface Water in the Country
India has been bestowed with substantial surface water resources. Overall water
resources of the country have been assessed at 1880 km3 annually. Of thus, it may be
possible to harness about 690 km3 of water for beneficial use. In addition, Ground Water
Resources of the Country are assessed at about 452 km3.
Storages
India has constructed a large number of storages and diversions for harness its vast
ware potential.
(1) Live storages built-up in the completed projects so far is about 163 km3.
(2) Another 7 km3 of live storage will be available from project under construction.
(3) 131 km3 from projects under consideration.
(4) In addition, there is a large number of small tanks whose storage adds upto about
30 km3.
Total Hydro-Power Potential of the Country has been assessed at 84,000 mW at 60 per
cent load factor. Presently, Completed and on-going Schemes will exploit about 15,600 mW
i.e. 20 per cent of the assesses potential. Hydropower installed capacity at the end of the
Sixth Plan was 14, 450 mW. Forming about 34 per cent of the total installed capacity.
In the absence of information on actual water use by various sectors, estimates made
in this regard (1985) indicated that water use may be of the order of 530 km3 is from surface
Water and 180 km3 from Ground Water. Out of this, 470 km3 is for Irrigation and 70 km3
for other including Domestic (16.7 km3), Industrial (10 km3) and Thermal Plants (2.7 km3)
requirements. A recent assessment puts domestic requirements in 1991 at about 26 km3.
Basin-wise Water Resources Development for 12 Major River Basins is given in the
following table:
The surface water resources continue to the contaminated with run-off water from
agricultural fields, containing pesticides, fertilisers, soil particles, waste chemicals from
industrial and sewage from cities and rural areas.
During the dry months, water scarcity is faced even in the places like Cherrapunji and
Konkan, which receive heavy rainfall. Due to the unequal distribution of rainfall our
countrymen face problems of flood and famine in some parts every year.
The mass balance of annual rainfall that about 70% is lost by direct evaporation and
transpiration by plants, while the remaining 30% goes into the streamflow shows it. The
approximate breakup of this streamflow, as consumed by man, is 18% for irrigation, 2% for
domestic use, 4% for industrial and 12% for electrical utilities. Irrigation for agricultural
purposes and electric power plants are the major consumer of water.
Growth Water
Ground water resources are abundant only in the northern and coastal plains. In other
parts its supply is not adequate. Ground water is roughly 210 million m3. This quantity
includes recharge through infiltration, seepage and evaporisation. Even at present, our
country has not been able to provide safe drinking water to all villages and towns.
Ground water contains dissolved minerals from the soil layers through which it passes.
In the process of seepage through the ground, the water gets depleted of most of the
microorganism originally present in the surface water. Though the salt content may be
excessively high on occasions, it is generally superior as a domestic water source. Surface
water contains a lot of organic matter and mineral nutrients, which feed algae and large
bacteria populations.
The total replenishable Ground Water Resources in the Country have been provisionally
estimated at 45.23 million hectares meters per year. Of this, 6.93 million hectares metres
is for drinking, industrial and other uses leaving 38.34 million hectares metres as utilisable
Ground Water Resources for Irrigation.
Basin-wise/State-wise break-up of the potential is given in the Table 2 (next page).
Over-utilization of Water
It transpires from our water budget that, in case average annual rainfall of entire
country and its total area are taken, the total water resources are of the order of 167 million
hectare meters. In fact, only 66 million-hectare meters of water can be utilised by us for
irrigation. As there are some financial and technological constraints we plant to use it fully
only by 2010 A.D. By 1951 only 9.7 million ha metre water was used for irrigation. By 1973
it was as much as 18.4 million ha metres.
It is observed that Agriculture sector is the major user of water. The water used for
irrigation which was two decades back nearly 40% has gone up to 73% by 2000 A.D. Irrigation
use is very inefficient. Hence, 25-30% efficiency and method of irrigation are to be changed
drastically. From the data on water use shown in the table given as under, it becomes
evident that irrigation including for livestock and including power use is 79.6% and 13.7%
water respectively. Thereafter, come domestic (3.5%) and industrial (3.3%) uses.
In case the land area is taken up as a unit, the position could be different. By 1984-
85 the land under irrigation almost tripled to 67.5 million ha.
Water Use (India) 2000 A.D. (Available Water 1900 Million Cubic Metre Per Year)
Uses Taken Consumed Returned
Irrigation and 869 783 86
Livestock Power 150 5 145
Industry 35 10 25
Domestic 38 8 30
Total 1092 806 286
Uses Taken Consumed Returned
Irrigation and 869 783 86
Livestock Power 150 5 145
Industry 35 10 25
Domestic 38 8 30
Total 1092 806 286
After a period of five years i.e. by 1990 another 13 million ha were to be brought underirrigation, thus, the total figure was 80 million ha. This may be adjudged against the totalpotential of 133 million ha by 2010 A.D. Here it may be kept in mind that it is the grosssown area and not net sown area. The former i.e. net sown area at present, more than 3%
of the net sown area is under irrigation.
It is estimated by World Health Organization (WHO) that water thirsty countries are
across the oceans. Nordic water supply (Norwegian company) has been transporting fresh
water i.e. clean drinking water in giant floating bags across the oceans. These floating bags
are made long. Each contains 35,000 tonnes of water. The floating water bags are made of
a polyester plant to build new bags of the size of supertanker, 300 metres long and a
capacity of 1,00,000 tons water. In this way the Nordic company is engaged in the business
of the net sown area is under irrigation.
It is estimated by World Health Organization (WHO) that water thirsty countries are
across the oceans. Nordic water supply (Norwegian company) has been transporting fresh
water i.e. clean drinking water in giant floating bags across the oceans. These floating bags
are made long. Each contains 35,000 tonnes of water. The floating water bags are made of
a polyester plant to build new bags of the size of supertanker, 300 metres long and a
capacity of 1,00,000 tons water. In this way the Nordic company is engaged in the business
of towing fresh water from Turkey to Greek island. Its future plans include transportingwater from Iran to Saudi Arabia and along Caribbean and Red Sea.Water SupplyIn our country water supply is scanty. We have more than 3000 towns, but hardly 2000have an organized water supply. It is essential to augment coverage of water supply in
urban as well as rural sectors. At present the position of water supply is as under:
(1) Low daily per capita supply,
(2) Inefficient distribution,
(3) High leakage and ill managed system.
This is the position in towns. In rural sector progress in water supply has been very
slow. There are about six lakh villages involved in which our 76% population lives.
Previously they were provided safe drinking water through piped water supply systems
or hand pumps operated tube wells. Efforts are on and it is an expected picture that supply
could be brought to about more than one lakh villages. The picture is somewhat improved
during the Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (WSSD) (1981-90).
To solve the water problem, some other precautionary measures are to be taken. We
have to use minimum water. The quantity of water returning after use becomes the waste
water. The data for water use in our country show that waste that by 2000 A.D. out of 1900
Mm3 of water available, the country had used about more than 50% of the available water
(about 1092 Mm3) for four major consumptive uses-irrigation, power generation, domestic
and industrial uses.
It is held that for sustainability at least more than half of the total available water
should be used annually. The country has overshot the 50% mark by 2000 A.D. which is not
in our ecological interest.
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urban as well as rural sectors. At present the position of water supply is as under:
(1) Low daily per capita supply,
(2) Inefficient distribution,
(3) High leakage and ill managed system.
This is the position in towns. In rural sector progress in water supply has been very
slow. There are about six lakh villages involved in which our 76% population lives.
Previously they were provided safe drinking water through piped water supply systems
or hand pumps operated tube wells. Efforts are on and it is an expected picture that supply
could be brought to about more than one lakh villages. The picture is somewhat improved
during the Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (WSSD) (1981-90).
To solve the water problem, some other precautionary measures are to be taken. We
have to use minimum water. The quantity of water returning after use becomes the waste
water. The data for water use in our country show that waste that by 2000 A.D. out of 1900
Mm3 of water available, the country had used about more than 50% of the available water
(about 1092 Mm3) for four major consumptive uses-irrigation, power generation, domestic
and industrial uses.
It is held that for sustainability at least more than half of the total available water
should be used annually. The country has overshot the 50% mark by 2000 A.D. which is not
in our ecological interest.
Water Resources ManagementSome of the central and corresponding state originations concerned with specific aspects
of water resources management are as under:
(1) Central Pollution Control Board Concerning Water Quality
(2) Central Water Commission Concerning Surface Water
(3) Central Ground Water Board Concerning Ground Water
(4) Indian Metrological Department Concerning Precipitation
(5) Central Public Health and Concerning Water Supplies
Sanitation
Environment Engineering and Sewage Disposal
(Ministry of Urban Development)
(6) Ministry of Agricultural and ICAR Concerning Water use for Agricultural
(7) Department of Environment Concerning Environment Forests and
Wildlife (Ministry of Impact
of water resources management are as under:
(1) Central Pollution Control Board Concerning Water Quality
(2) Central Water Commission Concerning Surface Water
(3) Central Ground Water Board Concerning Ground Water
(4) Indian Metrological Department Concerning Precipitation
(5) Central Public Health and Concerning Water Supplies
Sanitation
Environment Engineering and Sewage Disposal
(Ministry of Urban Development)
(6) Ministry of Agricultural and ICAR Concerning Water use for Agricultural
(7) Department of Environment Concerning Environment Forests and
Wildlife (Ministry of Impact
AssessmentEnvironment and Forest)(8) Department of Concerning WatershedForest Management(9) Department of Power Concerning Hydroelectric Power
MEASUREMENT TO CHECK OVER-UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES
In our country the Ministry of Water Resources is entrusted with the function of layingdown policies and programmes for development and regulation of the country’s waterresources. Under its jurisdiction come the following:
(1) Sartorial planning,
(2) Co-ordination,
(3) Policy guidelines,
(4) Technical examination and tech-economic appraisal of projects,
(5) Providing central assistance to specific projects.
(6) Facilitation of external assistance and assistance in the resolution of interstate
water disputes,
(7) Policy formulation, planning and guidance in respect of minor irrigation,
(8) Command area development
(9) Development of ground water resources etc.
Evidently, its jurisdiction is quite wide. It was in September 1987 that the National
Water Resources council adopted the National Water Policy. The council laid stress on the
truth that ‘Water’ is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national
asset. As such, its over consumption and wastage should be discontinued at every cost. It held
that planning and development of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives.
Since 1987, a great number of issues and challenges have emerged in the development
and management of the water resources sector. As such, it was felt necessary to review the
National Water Policy. The same was done and the (Revised) National Water Policy was
adopted by the National Water Resources Council in its fifth meeting held on 1 April 2002
at New Delhi. All the states besides the centre are required to adopt immediate measures
in order to achieve the desired objectives of the policy, each state has to formulate its own
State Water Policy, backed with an operational action plan in a time-bound manner, the
period so stipulated is a period of two years.
Assessment of Water Resources
It is assessed that the average run-off in the river system of the country is 1,869 km3
(cubic kilometers). It is estimated that of this, the utilisable portion by conventional storage
and diversion is about 690 km3. Besides it, the replenishable grounder water potential in the
country is estimated at 432 km3. A fall is visible in the per-capita availability of water at
national level from about 5,177 m3 (cubic meters) in 1951 to the estimated level of 1,869 m3
in 2001 with great variation in water availability in different river basins.
MEASUREMENT TO CHECK OVER-UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES
In our country the Ministry of Water Resources is entrusted with the function of layingdown policies and programmes for development and regulation of the country’s waterresources. Under its jurisdiction come the following:
(1) Sartorial planning,
(2) Co-ordination,
(3) Policy guidelines,
(4) Technical examination and tech-economic appraisal of projects,
(5) Providing central assistance to specific projects.
(6) Facilitation of external assistance and assistance in the resolution of interstate
water disputes,
(7) Policy formulation, planning and guidance in respect of minor irrigation,
(8) Command area development
(9) Development of ground water resources etc.
Evidently, its jurisdiction is quite wide. It was in September 1987 that the National
Water Resources council adopted the National Water Policy. The council laid stress on the
truth that ‘Water’ is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national
asset. As such, its over consumption and wastage should be discontinued at every cost. It held
that planning and development of water resources need to be governed by national perspectives.
Since 1987, a great number of issues and challenges have emerged in the development
and management of the water resources sector. As such, it was felt necessary to review the
National Water Policy. The same was done and the (Revised) National Water Policy was
adopted by the National Water Resources Council in its fifth meeting held on 1 April 2002
at New Delhi. All the states besides the centre are required to adopt immediate measures
in order to achieve the desired objectives of the policy, each state has to formulate its own
State Water Policy, backed with an operational action plan in a time-bound manner, the
period so stipulated is a period of two years.
Assessment of Water Resources
It is assessed that the average run-off in the river system of the country is 1,869 km3
(cubic kilometers). It is estimated that of this, the utilisable portion by conventional storage
and diversion is about 690 km3. Besides it, the replenishable grounder water potential in the
country is estimated at 432 km3. A fall is visible in the per-capita availability of water at
national level from about 5,177 m3 (cubic meters) in 1951 to the estimated level of 1,869 m3
in 2001 with great variation in water availability in different river basins.
Irrigation Development
India has a culturable area of 1850 lakh hectares of which 1410 lakh ha. is sown area.
Sustained and Systematic Programme for Development of Irrigation Facilities in the
Country was taken up with the advent of Planned Development in 1951. The Irrigation
potential creation during the Pre-Plan Period was 226 lakh ha. of which 97 lakh ha. were
from Major and Medium Irrigation and 129 lakh ha. from Minor Irrigation Schemes. The
cumulative irrigation potential increased to about 675 lakh ha. by the end of 1984-85. Of
this 300 lakh ha. were from Major and Medium Irrigation Projects and 375 lakh ha. form
Minor Irrigation Schemes. The target of additional potential during the Seventh Plan was
129 lakh ha. of which 43 lakh ha. was from Major and Medium Irrigation Projects and 86
lakh ha. from Minor Irrigation Schemes. The Approval Outlay for the Seventh Plan was
about Rs. 14,360 crore for Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation Programmes and about Rs.
1,671 crore for the Command Area Development Programme.
The additional irrigation potential achieved during 1985-90 in regard to Major and
Medium Irrigation was 30 lakh ha and 84.4 lakh ha. Minor Irrigation Schemes. The main
thrust of the Development Policy for the Irrigation Sector is toward achieving the assessed
target of 1,130 lakh ha. of gross irrigation potential; in the country based on convention
methods of diversion and storages by 2010 AD. or so. are expected to be irrigation eventually
from Major and Medium Projects and the balance by Minor Schemes.
Plan wide Development
In every plan/five year efforts were made to create and utilize potential and ground
water/resources of the country.
Plan achievements in this direction are as under:
Table 2.3
Plan Position of Irrigation Created and Utilised
Plan Period Potential created Potential utilised
(mha) (mha)
Pre-Plan period 9.70 9.70
First Plan (1951-56) 12.20 10.98
Second Plan (1961-66) 14.33 13.05
Third Plan (1961-66) 16.57 15.17
Annual Plan (1966-69) 18.10 16.75
Fourth Plan (1969-74) 20.70 18.39
Fifth Plan ( 1974-78) 24.72 21.16
Annual Plan (1978-80) 26.61 22.64
Sixth Plan (1980-85) 27.70 23.57
Seven Plan (1985-90) 29.92 25.47
Annual Plan (1990-92) 30.74 26.31
India has a culturable area of 1850 lakh hectares of which 1410 lakh ha. is sown area.
Sustained and Systematic Programme for Development of Irrigation Facilities in the
Country was taken up with the advent of Planned Development in 1951. The Irrigation
potential creation during the Pre-Plan Period was 226 lakh ha. of which 97 lakh ha. were
from Major and Medium Irrigation and 129 lakh ha. from Minor Irrigation Schemes. The
cumulative irrigation potential increased to about 675 lakh ha. by the end of 1984-85. Of
this 300 lakh ha. were from Major and Medium Irrigation Projects and 375 lakh ha. form
Minor Irrigation Schemes. The target of additional potential during the Seventh Plan was
129 lakh ha. of which 43 lakh ha. was from Major and Medium Irrigation Projects and 86
lakh ha. from Minor Irrigation Schemes. The Approval Outlay for the Seventh Plan was
about Rs. 14,360 crore for Major, Medium and Minor Irrigation Programmes and about Rs.
1,671 crore for the Command Area Development Programme.
The additional irrigation potential achieved during 1985-90 in regard to Major and
Medium Irrigation was 30 lakh ha and 84.4 lakh ha. Minor Irrigation Schemes. The main
thrust of the Development Policy for the Irrigation Sector is toward achieving the assessed
target of 1,130 lakh ha. of gross irrigation potential; in the country based on convention
methods of diversion and storages by 2010 AD. or so. are expected to be irrigation eventually
from Major and Medium Projects and the balance by Minor Schemes.
Plan wide Development
In every plan/five year efforts were made to create and utilize potential and ground
water/resources of the country.
Plan achievements in this direction are as under:
Table 2.3
Plan Position of Irrigation Created and Utilised
Plan Period Potential created Potential utilised
(mha) (mha)
Pre-Plan period 9.70 9.70
First Plan (1951-56) 12.20 10.98
Second Plan (1961-66) 14.33 13.05
Third Plan (1961-66) 16.57 15.17
Annual Plan (1966-69) 18.10 16.75
Fourth Plan (1969-74) 20.70 18.39
Fifth Plan ( 1974-78) 24.72 21.16
Annual Plan (1978-80) 26.61 22.64
Sixth Plan (1980-85) 27.70 23.57
Seven Plan (1985-90) 29.92 25.47
Annual Plan (1990-92) 30.74 26.31
Eight Plan (1992-97) 32.95 28.41Ninth Plan (1997-98)
Annual Plan (1997-98) 33.62 28.90
Annual Plan (1998-1999) 34.27 29.78
Annual Plan (1999-2000) 35.10 30.44
(Provisional)
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 42.77 37.12
(Provisional)
Source: Planning Commission Document-Ninth Plan (1972-2002) and Annual Plan (2000-2001).
Common Area Development Programme
The Centrally-Sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was launched
at the beginning of Fifth Plan (1974-75) with the special objective of ensuring a faster and
better utilization of irrigation potential in selected Major and Medium Irrigation Projects in
the Country. Its main objective were as under:
(1) To improve the utilization irrigation potential.
(2) To optimise agriculture production and productivity from irrigation lands on a
sustainable basis.
(3) To integrate all functions related with irrigated agriculture through a
multidisciplinary team under an area development authority.
Programme broadly covers on-farm development works which include construction of
Field Channels, field drains, land-leveling and shaping wherever necessary, farm roads,
consolidation of holdings and realignment of boundaries, Introduction of Warabandi or
rotational supply of water and Setting-up off WFH wireless network for better communication
in order to ensure equitable and assured supply of irrigation even to the tail end holdings,
arrangement for supply in inputs and credit, agriculture extension, construction of markets
and godowns, and development of ground water for conjunctive use. The programme covering
152 selected major and medium irrigation projects in 20 states and two union territories
with total cultural command area of a little over 200 lakh ha. is being executed through the
various command area development authorities.
During the seventh plan, more emphasis was laid on improving water management and
water delivery system, adaptive trials, training of field-level staff and farmer, monitoring
and evaluation of the programme and involvement of farmers in water management.
Financing of C.A.D. programme is from three sources, namely central assistance to
states on matching basis for certain selected items, state government’s own sources and
institutional credit for works, land development, marketing and storage.
From 1986-87, the financing pattern has been revised, according to which construction
of field Channels from outlets for five to eight ha. Blocks is being financed on matching
grant, 50 per cent to be borne by the centre and the remaining by states. In the seventh
plan, allocation for CAD programme was Rs. 500 crore in the central sector against which
an expenditure of Rs. 497 crore was incurred.
Annual Plan (1997-98) 33.62 28.90
Annual Plan (1998-1999) 34.27 29.78
Annual Plan (1999-2000) 35.10 30.44
(Provisional)
Ninth Plan (1997-2002) 42.77 37.12
(Provisional)
Source: Planning Commission Document-Ninth Plan (1972-2002) and Annual Plan (2000-2001).
Common Area Development Programme
The Centrally-Sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was launched
at the beginning of Fifth Plan (1974-75) with the special objective of ensuring a faster and
better utilization of irrigation potential in selected Major and Medium Irrigation Projects in
the Country. Its main objective were as under:
(1) To improve the utilization irrigation potential.
(2) To optimise agriculture production and productivity from irrigation lands on a
sustainable basis.
(3) To integrate all functions related with irrigated agriculture through a
multidisciplinary team under an area development authority.
Programme broadly covers on-farm development works which include construction of
Field Channels, field drains, land-leveling and shaping wherever necessary, farm roads,
consolidation of holdings and realignment of boundaries, Introduction of Warabandi or
rotational supply of water and Setting-up off WFH wireless network for better communication
in order to ensure equitable and assured supply of irrigation even to the tail end holdings,
arrangement for supply in inputs and credit, agriculture extension, construction of markets
and godowns, and development of ground water for conjunctive use. The programme covering
152 selected major and medium irrigation projects in 20 states and two union territories
with total cultural command area of a little over 200 lakh ha. is being executed through the
various command area development authorities.
During the seventh plan, more emphasis was laid on improving water management and
water delivery system, adaptive trials, training of field-level staff and farmer, monitoring
and evaluation of the programme and involvement of farmers in water management.
Financing of C.A.D. programme is from three sources, namely central assistance to
states on matching basis for certain selected items, state government’s own sources and
institutional credit for works, land development, marketing and storage.
From 1986-87, the financing pattern has been revised, according to which construction
of field Channels from outlets for five to eight ha. Blocks is being financed on matching
grant, 50 per cent to be borne by the centre and the remaining by states. In the seventh
plan, allocation for CAD programme was Rs. 500 crore in the central sector against which
an expenditure of Rs. 497 crore was incurred.
It was decided to include on pilot basis suitable minor irrigation project of State/UTs
north-eastern region including Sikkim Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh for
command area development.
The ultimate objective of CAD programme is to provide agricultural production in
Command Area. Every CAD administrator has been advised to undertaken intensive cropcutting experiments for each crop season so that the rise in agricultural productivity in
Irrigation Commands can be effectively monitored. The Central Government has also decided
to provide cent percent cost of training of Orientation of Senior-level Officers involved in the
Programme.
By March 1990, physical achievement under the programmed includes 111 lakh ha. of
area provided with field channels, 19 lakh ha. of land-levelled and 49 lakh ha covered under
the Warbandi.
Note : Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
Govt. of India.
Major and Medium Irrigation Projects
The irrigation projects with a Culturable Command Area ( CCA) of more than 10,000
ha. are classified as major projects and project with a CCA of more than 2, 000 ha. and upto
10,000 ha, are categories as medium projects.
Between 1951 and 1985, 246 Major and 1,059 medium project were taken up for
execution. Among them, 65 Major and 626 Medium Projects were completed by 1985. During
the seventh plan, 18 new medium project were taken up. Out of the 199 major and 462
medium projects in hand, 37 major and 185 medium projects are expected to have been
completed during the seventh plan period.
In 1974, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were begun, with a Culturable
Command Area (CCA) of about 15 mha. Later on, a number of projects were included while
a few were deleted. At present, the number of programmes with CCA of 22.78 mha. The
projects are spread over 28 States and two Union Territories. The great concern is reflected
from the fact that since inception, and amount of Rs. 2,452.33 crore has been spent for
different activities of the programme. An amount of Rs. 148.27 crore has been spent during
2001-2002.
The programme involves execution of On Farm Development (OFD) works. A few of
them are as under:
(1) The construction of field channels and field drains.
(2) The land levelling and shaping.
(3) The conjunctive use of surface and groundwater.
(4) Warabandi or a rotational system of distribution of irrigation water is undertaken.
The sole aim behind it, is to ensure equitable and timely supply of water to farmer’s
fields.
Suitable measure and adopted, for example, adapting trials/demonstrations and training
of farmers and functionaries of implementing departments are encouraged with a view to
disseminate the technical know-how among farmers with mainly two purposes:
(i) First, for adopting suitable pattern and
(ii) Second, for improving farm practices without deterioration of soil health.
During the ninth plan 1997-2002. The ministry has identified three items of work as
thrust areas, these items of workers are as under:
(i) Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM),
(ii) Reclamation of waterlogged in the command of on-going CAD projects, and
(iii) Dissemination of technical knowledge to farmers and functionaries.
It is rightly realized that the popular participation, that is, the involvement of farmers
in the management of irrigation is essential for better utilizations of water for irrigation
with a view to encourage an incentive to Farmers Associations/Water Users’ Associations,
a one-time function grant of Rs. 500 per ha. (To be shared as Rs. 255 per ha, by state and
Rs. 50 per ha. by Farmers’ Associations) is provided to registered and function Farmers’
Associations. Emphasis is laid on dissemination of technical know-how among functionaries
and farmers. Keeping it in view, adaptive trials/demonstrations in the farmers’ fields and
training of farmers and functionaries has been an important activity. It would be called a
great achievement that upto March 2002, 441 projects had been included for treatment of
waterlogged areas in the CAD commands.
north-eastern region including Sikkim Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh for
command area development.
The ultimate objective of CAD programme is to provide agricultural production in
Command Area. Every CAD administrator has been advised to undertaken intensive cropcutting experiments for each crop season so that the rise in agricultural productivity in
Irrigation Commands can be effectively monitored. The Central Government has also decided
to provide cent percent cost of training of Orientation of Senior-level Officers involved in the
Programme.
By March 1990, physical achievement under the programmed includes 111 lakh ha. of
area provided with field channels, 19 lakh ha. of land-levelled and 49 lakh ha covered under
the Warbandi.
Note : Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
Govt. of India.
Major and Medium Irrigation Projects
The irrigation projects with a Culturable Command Area ( CCA) of more than 10,000
ha. are classified as major projects and project with a CCA of more than 2, 000 ha. and upto
10,000 ha, are categories as medium projects.
Between 1951 and 1985, 246 Major and 1,059 medium project were taken up for
execution. Among them, 65 Major and 626 Medium Projects were completed by 1985. During
the seventh plan, 18 new medium project were taken up. Out of the 199 major and 462
medium projects in hand, 37 major and 185 medium projects are expected to have been
completed during the seventh plan period.
In 1974, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were begun, with a Culturable
Command Area (CCA) of about 15 mha. Later on, a number of projects were included while
a few were deleted. At present, the number of programmes with CCA of 22.78 mha. The
projects are spread over 28 States and two Union Territories. The great concern is reflected
from the fact that since inception, and amount of Rs. 2,452.33 crore has been spent for
different activities of the programme. An amount of Rs. 148.27 crore has been spent during
2001-2002.
The programme involves execution of On Farm Development (OFD) works. A few of
them are as under:
(1) The construction of field channels and field drains.
(2) The land levelling and shaping.
(3) The conjunctive use of surface and groundwater.
(4) Warabandi or a rotational system of distribution of irrigation water is undertaken.
The sole aim behind it, is to ensure equitable and timely supply of water to farmer’s
fields.
Suitable measure and adopted, for example, adapting trials/demonstrations and training
of farmers and functionaries of implementing departments are encouraged with a view to
disseminate the technical know-how among farmers with mainly two purposes:
(i) First, for adopting suitable pattern and
(ii) Second, for improving farm practices without deterioration of soil health.
During the ninth plan 1997-2002. The ministry has identified three items of work as
thrust areas, these items of workers are as under:
(i) Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM),
(ii) Reclamation of waterlogged in the command of on-going CAD projects, and
(iii) Dissemination of technical knowledge to farmers and functionaries.
It is rightly realized that the popular participation, that is, the involvement of farmers
in the management of irrigation is essential for better utilizations of water for irrigation
with a view to encourage an incentive to Farmers Associations/Water Users’ Associations,
a one-time function grant of Rs. 500 per ha. (To be shared as Rs. 255 per ha, by state and
Rs. 50 per ha. by Farmers’ Associations) is provided to registered and function Farmers’
Associations. Emphasis is laid on dissemination of technical know-how among functionaries
and farmers. Keeping it in view, adaptive trials/demonstrations in the farmers’ fields and
training of farmers and functionaries has been an important activity. It would be called a
great achievement that upto March 2002, 441 projects had been included for treatment of
waterlogged areas in the CAD commands.
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