2. Environmental Science: Natural Resources part 3

Minor Irrigation Scheme
Ground water development, which constitutes bulk of the Minor Irrigation Programme,
is essentially a People’s Programme implemented primary through individual and co-operative
efforts with finance obtained mainly from institutional sources. To encourage use of watersaving devices such as Sprinklers, Drip Systen, Hydrams, Water Turbines and Hand Pumps,
the Government subsidies are made available to Small and Marginal Farmers for their
purchase.
Minor Irrigation Schemes provide instant and reliable source of irrigation to cultivators.
It also provides critical help in improving the status of irrigation and controlling waterlogging and Salinistion in Canal Command, Minor Irrigation Surface Water Projects, which
are financed through plan Funds, often chronically drought-affected areas. Initial investment
on these schemes is comparatively low and they can be completed quickly. Moreover, these
schemes are labour-intensive and offer employment to the rural people. Growth of irrigation
potential from Minor Irrigation Schemes is shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4
Minor Irrigation Potential (Comulative)
Period Potential (Lakh Hectate)
Ultimate Potential ( by 2010 AD) 550.00
Potential at the end of 1950-51 129.00
First Plan 140.00
Second Plan 147.50
Third Plan 170.00

Annual Plan (1968-69) 190.00End of the Forth Plan 235.00
End of the Fifth Plan 273.00
End of the Annual Plan (1979-80) 300.00
End of the Sixth Plan 375.00
End of the 1987-88 422.70
End of the 1988-89 439.00
End of the 1989-90 (Anticipated) 458.50
End of the 1990-91 (Target) 478.20
Note : Courtesy Research Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Govt. of India.
Minor Irrigation Schemes Comprise all groundwater and surface water schemes, having
a culturable Command Area (CCA) up hectares individually. The development of groundwater
is mostly done through individual and cooperative efforts of farmers, with the help of
institutional finance and through own saving. Finance is arranged for surface minor irrigation
schemes from the public sector outlay.
The following table reflects the Irrigation potential created and utilised under minor
irrigation during the various plan periods:
Table 2.5
Irrigation Potential Created and Utilised Under Minor Irrigation
Period Potential created Potential utilised
(mha) (mha)
Upto 1951 (Per-plan period) 12.90 12.90
First Plan 14.06 14.06
Second Plan 14.75 14.75
Third Plan 17.00 17.00
Annual Plans (1966-69) 19.00 19.00
Forth Plan 23.50 23.50
Annual Plans (1978-80) 27.30 27.30
Sixth Plan 30.00 30.00
Seventh Plan 35.52 35.25
Annual Plan 46.61 43.12
Eight Plan 50.35 46.54
Annual Plan 57.62 (P) 53.05 (P)
Annual Plan (1988-1999) 58.79 (P) 53.78 (P)
Annual Plan (1999-2000) 59.38 (P) 54.23 (P)
Annual Plan (2000-2001) 67.32 (P) 51.19 (P)


It is since the Seventh Five Year Plan that the Ministry of Water Resources has beenimplementing the Centrally sponsored Plan Scheme “Rationalization of Minor IrrigationStatistics (RMIS)”. Under this scheme, the first census of minor irrigation projects withreference year 1986-87 was conducted in all the States/UTs execpt Rajasthan. Its reportprojects was conducted with reference year 1993-94. Its report was published in March 2001.Thereafter, the third census of minor irrigation project with reference year 2000-2001was conducted in all the States/UTs except the UTs of Daman and Diu and Lakshadweep.It is felt that some Regions are lagging behind. Hence Central Loan Assistance is beinggiven to the North-Eastern States, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. KBK districtsof Orissa are also being provided with the assistance since 1999-2000 for minor irrigation works.To condude, a great endeavor is being made at the Government level to economise theexpenditure of water for irrigation purpose

.REGULATION OF GROUND WATER UTILIZATION AND RESTRICTING
ITS OVER UTILIZATIONWater is vital for realising full potential of agriculture sector and Country’s Development.Optimum development and efficient utilization of our water resources, therefore, assumesgreat significance.The erstwhile Department of Irrigation was redesignated as Ministry of Water Resourcesin October 1985, and assigned the nodal role for development, conservation and managementof water as a National Resource. Water being the most crucial element, National WaterPolicy was adopted in September 1987. The policy recommends need for integrated andmulti-disciplinary approach to planning, formation and implementation of projects. It alsolays down priority areas for planning and operation of systems. Highest -priority has beenassigned to drinking water followed by irrigation, Hydropower, navigation, industrial andother users. The Policy further recommends that the quality of Surface and Ground Watershould be monitored.In Flood Management Sector, the need for having a ‘Master Plan’ for Flood Control andManagement for each Flood Prone- basin through sound Watershed Management wasrecognised in the policy and establishment of extensive network for flood forecastingrecommended. The policy further recommended the erosion of land by sea or river beminimised by suitable cost-effective measures. Therefore, planning and management of thisresource and its optimal, economical and equitable use with application of Science andTechnology has become a matter of utmost urgency.The Ministry is responsible for broadly laying down Policies and Programmes fordevelopment and regulation of the Country’s Water Resources. Its role essentially coversSectoral Planning, Coordination, Policy Guidelines, technical examination, assistance inwater resources projects and facilitation of external help and assistance in resolution ofdisputes as a result of inter-state problems.The Central Ground Water AuthorityThe Central Ground Water Authority was set up in 14th January 1997 under the
Environment protection Act, 1986. It is vested with the responsibility of making an assessment



of the groundwater potential of the country through hydrological surveys, exploration,evaluation and monitoring of ground water regime.Present Position of Ground WaterThe total replenishable groundwater in India is estimated to be about 43.39 millionhectare metres per year (about 43.86 billion cubic metres). Out of it, about 7.13-mha m/yrof groundwater is reserved for domestic and industrial uses and 36.26-m.h.a m/yr is available
for irrigation. According to an estimate, there has been a development of 37.24 per cent of
available groundwater resources.
It is a sad affair that out of 5,711 block/talukas/mandals/watersheds in the country, 310
block/talukas/mandals/watershed are categoriesed as “over-exploited”. Over exploited indicates
the stage of groundwater development which exceeds the annual replenishable recharge.
Besides, 160 blocks/talukas/mandals/watersheds are found and classified ‘Dark’ i.e. the
stage of ground water development is more than 85 per cent.
Various Steps
Various steps in the direction of regulation and control of the development and
management of ground water resources in the country are taken as under:
(1) National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan
The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development Plan was
constituted in September 1999. The commission submitted its report to the union Government
in December 1999. The report is quite exhaustive and valuable. Several recommendations
are made. These are mainly for development of water resources for drinking, irrigation,
industrial, flood control, transfer of surplus water to deficit area etc.
(2) Central Water Commission
The Central Water Commission (CWC) New Delhi, is the National Apex Organization
in Water Resources Development charged with the responsibility of initiating, co-ordinating
and furthering in consolation with state government concerned, schemes for control,
conservation and utilizations of water resources for irrigation, flood control, Hydro-power
Generation and navigation through the Country. With its rich expertise built over the last
four decades, CWC has developed considerable technological know-how in planning,
investigation, design, project appraisal and management of Water Resources Development.
It is sharing its knowledge and expertise with the Developing Countries. The commission’s
work are divided into four functional wings viz Water Planning, Design and Research, River
Management and Planning and Progress supported by Administration and Co-ordinate Wing.
The commission has set-up a National of 570 Hydrological Observation Stations. Since
most of the Stations were set-up during 1960’s and early 1970’s Data Records are now
available for nearly two decades. Besides, Guage and Discharge Observation and Sediment
Flow Measurements are carried out in selected 248 Stations and Water Quality observation
in stations are in operation in the Ganga Basin over the Past Two Decades. During 1978-
85, Water Quality Monitoring with respect to Population Loads, was conducted at 42 Selected
Stations on the Ganga under a ‘Special Scheme’ and a Status Report’ on water quality of
the Ganga System was published in Auguest, 1987. Although the ‘Special Scheme’ was
closed, Water Quality Monitoring in the Ganga System was continued and the ‘Status
Report’ on the water quality of Ganga System published in 1987 is being up-dated.

The Ministry of Water Resources constituted in February, 1990 an EnvironmentMonitoring Committee under the Chairmanship of Member, Water Planning, Central WaterCommission, with representatives of concerned Ministries to have periodical and effective
monitoring of the implementation of environmental conditions laid down by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests at the time of clearance of projects. Out of the 82 Irrigation Multipurpose and Flood Control Projects for which the Ministry of Environmental Monitoring
Organization of Central Water Commission has stipulated environmental safeguards and
site visits by the committee.
The project authorities of the remaining 72 projects have been requested to set-up
Project-Level Environment Monitoring Committee and Report the progress to the
Environmental Monitoring Committee. The committee has already visited and assessed the
situation in respect of Three Projects identified for close monitoring.
(3) Central Soil And Material Research Station
The Central Soil and Material Research Station, New Delhi, is a premier organization
which deals with Geo-mechanics and construction of material problems relevant River Valley
Project Construction. It plays an active role in imparting knowledge to Engineers involved
in the construction, designs etc. by holding nation level workshops with the help of the
United Nations Development Programme Experts.
(4) Subordinate Organizations
The Ministry of Water Resources has the following Six Subordinate Organization:
(1) Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune;
(2) Central Ground Water Board;
(3) Farakka Barrage Project, Murshidabad;
(4) Ganga Flood Control Commission, Patna;
(5) Bansagar Control Board, Rewa;
(6) Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee, Vadodara.
(5) Central Water and Power Research Station
The Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune, is devoted to applied and
fundamental research in energy resources and water-borne transport, Research activities
for the stations are carried-out in Ten Laboratories. since 1979, it is the Reorganised Regional
Laboratory if the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific for
studies related to Inland Waterways and Water-borne Transport. It’s clientele is drawn from
Arab Countries, Africa and South-East Asia.
(6) Central Ground Water Board
The Central Ground Water Board, New Delhi, is the National Apex Organization to
carry-out and guide scientific development and management of Ground Water Resources
from the National Perspective. It handles all waters relating to Hydro-Geological Surveys,
exploration, assessment, development and scientific management of the country’s Ground
Water Resources. The main activities of the organization include Macro- level Hydro-Geological
Surveys and Investigations, Deep-Exploratory Drilling Coupled with Geo-physical Logging
and Pump-Tests to study Hydro-Geological Features and National-wise Monitoring of Ground

from investigations undertaken by the board provides a scientific base for preparation of
Hydro-geological Maps, Atlases, delineation of Ground Water Worthy Areas and Formulation
of Ground Water Development Schemes. Beside advising the state governments on planning,
financing and administration of Ground Water Development Schemes, the board undertakes,
‘Water Balance Studies’ and organizes training of personal of all levels and disciplines of its
own and other state and Central Government Organisation including nominees of
International Organisations.
The board has completed an area of 29.89-lakh sq. upto the end of March 1990, out of
the total area of 32.9 lakh sq k.m. of the Country under Hydro-geological Surveys and
planned to complete the remaining by 1991. For the monitoring of Ground Water Regime,
the board established a National Network of 12, 450 Hydrographs Stations. Ground water
levels are being monitored by these stations quarterly in January, April/May, August and
November. Data is analysed to study impact of various input and output components on
Ground Water Regime. The board is presently having a fleet of 92 different kinds of Drilling
Rigs for Ground Water Exploration.
The board, through its, ‘Specialises Cells’ has initialed studies in the Field of Mathematic
Modelling, Data Storage and Retrieval and Ground Water Pollution.
It has also provided assistance to the National Drinking Water Mission for locating
sites for drinking water and to suggest suitable and economic structures to tap Ground
Water for Drinking Purpose in the Rural Areas.
Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
Govt. of India.


RIVERS IN INDIA

Rivers in our Country may be classified as:
(i) Himalayan Rivers,
(ii) Peninsular Rivers,
(iii) Coastal Rivers,
(iv) Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin.
(i) Himalayan Rivers
The Himalayan Rivers are perennial as they are generally snow-fed and have reasonable
flow throughout the year. During the monsoon, the Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall
and the rivers discharge the maximum quantity of water causing frequent floods.
(ii) Peninsular Rivers
The Peninsular Rivers are generally rain-fed and therefore, fluctuate in volume.
(iii) Coastal Rivers
A large number of the streams are Non-Perennial. The coastal streams, especially on
the West Coast are short in length and have limited Catchment Areas. Most of them are
flashy and non-perennial.

IRRIGATION AGREEMENTS
(1) Indus Water Treaty

India and Pakistan signed the Indus Water Treaty on 19 September, 1960, fixing and
delimiting the rights and obligations of the Two Countries with regards to the use of the
waters of the Indus River System. It came into force from first April, 1960. A Permanent
Indus Commission representing both the Governments have established co-operation
arrangements for implementation of the treaty.
(2) Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission
The Indo-Bangladesh Joint Rivers Commission was set-up in July, 1972 to perform the
following functions:
(i) To maintain liason between the Participating Countries in order to ensure the mosteffective joint efforts in maximizing the benefits from Common River System toboth Countries:(ii) To formulate flood forecasting and cyclone warnings;(iii) To study flood control works and so recommended implementation of Joint projects;(iv) To formulate detailed proposal on advance flood warnings, flood control and Irrigation
Project so that the water resources of the region can be utilized on an equipment
basis for the mutual benefit of the people of the two countries;
(v) To formulate proposal for countries to co-ordinate research on problems of flood
control affecting both the countries.
Indo-Nepal Sub-Commission on Water Resources
The Indo-Nepal, sub-commission on water resources was set-up in August 1988, to deal
with all aspects of Indo-Nepal Cooperation in the multiple uses of Water Resources for
mutual benefit. In additional to the matter already under discussion at secretary-level and
other meetings, the sub-commission shall identify new programes/Project for water resources
development for cooperation between India and Nepal in specific sectors viz. irrigation,
water-logging and drainage, hydro-electric power generation. Inland navigation, collection
of hydrological data, measures to prevent and reduce losses due to floods, flood forecasting
and flood warning, environment safeguard measures and transfer of technology suited to
the requirement of both the countries.
Note: Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
Govt. of India.


DAMS: DESCRIPTION, BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

A number of big, medium and minor dams have been envisaged under different river
valley projects. These dams have been undertaken for irrigation, power generation and
water supply. These dams, hailed as the Temples of Modern India by the country’s first
Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, have increased agricultural production, power generation
and reduced dependence on imports. A brief description of the dams and benefit accruing
form them is as under:
ENVIRONMENT PROBLEMS CREATED BY DAMSWe can study the environmental side effects of river valley and hydle-power projects inthree categories as under:(i) Effect within and around the area covered by the dam and reservoir.(ii) Downstream effects consequent to the alternation in hydraulic regime,(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects including resources use and socioeconomic aspects.The Evil ImpactsThe impacts caused by construction of dams and reservoirs include the following:(i) Changes in the microclimate,(ii) Loss of vegetal cover,(iii) Soil erosion,(iv) Variation in water level,(v) Enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water.(1) Effects of BlastingIn hilly tracts, blasting operations for road construction can cause considerable damage
to the environment through the following reactions:
(a) Loosening of hill sides and resultant landslides,
(b) Sedimentation of reservoirs,
(c) Drying up of spring and flash floods.
(2) The creation of new settlement for the workmen and rehabilitation of project oustees
in the watershed areas may aggravate the seriousness of advance impact.
The Guidelines
The guidelines refer to the environmental components to be taken in view during site
selection. These include the following points:
(i) Short and long-term impact on population in the unidentified and watershed areas;
(ii) Impact on wildlife,
(iii) Impact on land use,
(iv) Potential seismic impact of reservoir loading,


(v) Water balance and hydrological regime,(vi) Siltation,(vii) Socio-economic impact such as rehabilitation of project oustees and been suggestedin the guideline.The costs for environment protection and mitigative measures should also be includedin the overall estimates. These should include measures like:(i) Compensatory afforestation(ii) Restoration of land in construction areas,(iii) Control of aquatic weed,(iv) Control of water and soil diseases,(v) Rehabilitation of project oustees.SOME SAFEGUARDSFrom the above it becomes clear that it is essential to guarantee mitigative andenvironmental safeguard before clearance of a project. The safeguard for the following areto be guaranteed:(i) Submergence of valuable agricultural and forest areas,(ii) Siltation of reservoirs consequent to degraded catchment conditions,(iii) Satisfactory rehabilitation of those inhabitants who are ousted,(iv) Loss of flora and fauna,(v) Reservoir induced seismicity,(vi) Water borne and soil borne diseases.Opposition of DamsThe above-mentioned problems created by the dams have led to the opposition invarious corners of the country. The experts hold it from time to time that the social,environmental and even economic cost of these dams, however, far outweighs their benefits.The most important social consequence of big dams has been displacement of millions oftribals from their homeland and their eventual influx into urban areas, almost as refugees.This is the reason why Scientists, environmentalists, journalists, social activities, lawyers
and bureaucrats have taken up the cry against big dams



EFFECT OF THEIR EXTRACTION
Significance
The economic development of a country depends, to a great extent. On the availability
of minerals, got as ores from the earth by mining Coal and iron are the basic minerals which
man needs to develop iron and steel industry. Minerals like mica, copper, lead and zinc are
of vast economic importance. Thorium and uranium are atomic energy minerals.
Position of Minerals in India
India is rich endowed with minerals like coal, bauxite, barytes, iron, one mica, gypsum,
chromite, dolomite and limestone while it is deficient in minerals like asbestos, phosphates,
lead, tungsten, tin platinum group of metals, gold and diamonds.
Need for an Appropriate Policy
An appropriate policy regarding extraction of minerals is needed in view of the limited
availability and nature of minerals as under:
(1) Mineral resources are finite and non-renewable.
(2) Mineral resources constitute raw materials for many basic industries.
(3) Mineral resources are major resources of nations development.
National Mineral Policy
In view of the above Nations Mineral Policy has been adopted which encompasses the
various Policy Guidelines, which have been issued from time to time. The policy also
emphasizes certain new aspects and elements as under:
(1) Mineral Exploration in the seabed,
(2) Development of proper inventory,
(3) Proper linkage between exploitation of minerals and development of mineral
industry,

(4) Preference to members of the scheduled tribes for development of small deposits inscheduled areasm(5) Protection of forests, environment and ecology from the adverse effects of mining,(6) Enforcement of mining plan for adoption of proper mining methods.(7) Optimum utilizations of minerals, export of minerals in value added form andrecycling of metallic scrap and mineral waste.Under the constitution, mineral rights and administration of Mining Laws are vested
in State Governments. The Central Government, however, regulated development of minerals
under the Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1957 and the rules and
regulations framed under it. The statute empowers the Centre to formulate rules for the
following:
(i) The grant of prospective licences and mining leases;
(ii) The conservation and development of minerals;
(iii) The modification of old leases.
The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1957, was amended in
1972 and major amendments were made in February 1987. The Mineral Concession Rules,
1960, 1958 was replaced by more comprehensive rules in 1988.
MINERALS RESOURCES
Principle minerals found in the country, along with their estimated reserves, are given
below:
(1) Bauxite
Recoverable reserves of all grades of bauxite in the country are estimated at 283.3
crore tonnes. Important deposits occur in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujrat, Jammu and
Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh.
(2) Barytes
The recoverable reserves of barytes are placed at 7.1 crore tonnes. Most of the reserves
are located at Mangampet Taluka in Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh. Other minor
occurrences are reported from Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
(3) Coal and Lignite
Coal is India’s largest mineral resource and presently India is fifth largest of coal in the
world. Vast deposits of coal of Gondwana formations occur in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. It also occurs in tertiary formations
in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland. Total reserves
of coal are estimated at 17,046 crore tonnes comprosing 16,499 crore tonnes of non-coking
coal and 547 crore tonnes of prime cocking. As compare with India’s coal reserves lignite
resources are relatively modest at 438.8 crore tonnes of which the bulk of the reserves are
located in and around Neyyeli in Tamil Nadu. Significant lignite resources are in Rajasthan,
Gujrat and Jammu and Kashmir.

(4) Chromite
Total recoverable reserves of Chromite, are estimated at 5.4. crore tonnes. Deposits of
economic significance occur in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharastra, Manipur,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu. However, refractory grade reserves of chromite are very meagre.
(5) Copper
Major and important copper ore producing areas are in Singhbhum District (Bihar),
Balaghat District (Madhya Pradesh) and Jhunjhunu and Alwar District (Rajasthan). In
addition, small production of copper ore comes from Khammam District (Andhra Pradesh),
Chitradung and Hassan Districts (Karnataka), and Sikkim. Copper ore reserves in the
Country are estimated at 63.2 crore tonnes with a metal content of about 82.8 lakh tonnes.
(6) Diamond
Total reserves and resources in the country are placed at 10.8 carats. main diamond
bearing area in India is Panna belt in Madhaya Pradesh, Ramallakota and Bangampalle
Chitradung rocks in Kurnool Districts and gravels of Krishan River Basin in Andhra Pradesh.
Presently, the only Diamond Pipe under exploitation is at Panna.
(7) Dolomite
Total recoverable reserves of dolomite of all grades are placed at 46.08 lakh tonnes.
Principal producing states for dolomite are Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal.
(8) Gold
There are three important gold fields in the country, namely, Kolar Field in Kolar
District and Hutti Gold Field in Raichur District (both in Karnataka) and Ramagiri Gold
Field in Anantapur district (Andhra Pradesh). Total in-situ gold ore reserves and resources
are estimated at five crore tonnes with a total Gold content of 103.17 tonnes. However,
Kolar Gold Field Mines an Hutti account for bulk of Gold Ore Reserves, equivalent to about
57.6 tonnes in in-situ Gold.
(9) Fireclay
India has vast resources of fireclay with recoverable reserves of 70.3 tonnes. Fireclay
occurs in India mainly, associated with Coal Beds of Godwana and Tertialryt Basins. Major
fireclay producing states are Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan,
West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
(10) Fluorspar
Fluorspar mainly occurs in Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan with total recoverable
reserves estimated at 18.8 lakh tonnes.
(11) Gypsum
Total reserves and resources of gypsum in the country are estimated at 120 crore tonnes,
of which recoverable reserves are 31.9 crore tonnes. Bulk of domestic production mineral
gypsum comes from Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. Gujrat also produces small quantities.


(12) Graphite
Recoverable reserves of graphite are estimated at 46.5 lakh tonnes of which 31 lakh
tonnes occur in Kerala and Bihar and the rest in Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh.
(13) Limonite
Total reserves in limonite at 14.6 crore mainly in beach sands on Eastern and Western
Coasts and Tamil Nadu are important.
(14) Iron Ore
India is favourable endowed with iron ore deposits recoverable reserves are estimated
at 1197.7 crore tonnes of which 10, 267 tonnes are haematite and 171 crore tonnes magnitute
Ore. Haematite mainly occurs in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, and
Karnataka. Large reserves of magnetite ore occur along West Coast, primarily in Karnataka
with minor occurrences in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
(15) Kaolin
India possesses vast resources of kaolin and ball clay with kaolin Resources being
placed at 87.2 crore tonnes. Currently, principal producing states for Kaolin are Bihar,
Gujrat, Rajasthan and West Bengal, Kerala, Haryana, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh also
produce significant quantities. Ball Clay Kerala is chiefly produced in Rajasthan, Andhra
Pradesh and Gujarat.
(16) Lead-Zinc
Lead-zinc ore occur in Rajasthan, Meghalaya, Gujrat, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Sikkim. However, 95 per cent of the known
resources are localised in south-central Rajasthan and the adjoining part of Gujrat. Total
identified ore resources are placed at 38.3 crore tonnes equivalent to an in-situ mental
content of 56 lakh tonnes of lead and 1.83 crore tonnes of zinc.
(17) Limestone
Limestine occurs extensively in the country and is produced in almost all states. Major
Producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Bihar, Orissa,
Rajasthan and Karnataka. Total recoverable reserves of Limestone of all grades are estimated
Manganese Ore at 6935.4 crore tonnes.
(18) Manganese
Recoverable reserves of manganese ore are estimated at 15.4 crore tonnes. Rich
deposists of Manganese Ore occur in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujrat, Karanataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. Major producers are Orissa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
(19) Mica
India is world’s leading producer of sheet mica and accounts for about 60 per cent of
global mica trade. Economic deposits of mica occur in three richest mica belts, accounts for
almost 60 per cent of India’s output in terms of value. Though large mica resources are


existing, estimates have not far been made because of irregular nature of pegmatites as wellas erratic nature of mica mineralisation in pegmatites.(20) NickelLow grade latorited nickel occurs in Cuttack, Keonjhar and Mayurbhani Districts ofOrissa. Main occurrence is in Sukinda Belt to Cuttack District. Minor occurrences are alsoreported from Bihar, Manipur, Nagaland, Maharasthra, Karnataka and Rajasthan. Totalnickel ore resources are estimated at 23.1 crore tonnes.(21) Phosphate MineralsDeposists of Phosphorites are located in Chhatarpur, Sagar and Jhabua Districts ofMadhya Pradesh, Udaipur, Jaisalmer and Banswara districts of Rajasthan and Dehradunand Tehri and Lalitpur District of Uttar Pradesh. Besides, apatite deposits of commericalimportance are reported to occur in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal andTamil Nadu. Total recoverable reserves of Rock Phosphate are estimated at 11.5 croretonnes and of apatite at 20 lakh tonnes.(22) Tungsten
Recoverable reserves of tungsten ore are placed at 70 lakh tonnes with W 03 contents
of 7,860 tonnes. Tungsten ore occurs in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, West Bengal
and Uttar Pradesh. The only producing mine in the country is at Degana in Rajasthan.
(23) Magnesite
India is having large resources of magnesite, which is an important refractory mineral.
Total recoverable reserves of magnesite are estimated at 22.2 crore tonnes. Presently, chief
sources of magnesite are in the District of Salem in Tamil Nadu and Almora in Uttar
Pradesh. Deposits of magnesite also occur in Chamili and Pithoragarh District of Uttar
Pradesh, Mysore and Hassan District of Karnataka and in Jammu and Kashmir and Kerala.
(24) Kyanite and Sillimanite
Kyanitye and sillimanite are other important refractory minerals. Principal sources of
supply of kyanite are Singhbhum deposit of Bihar and Bhandara deposit of Maharashtra.
A small quantity is also produced form Karnataka and Rajasthan. Total recoverable reverses
of Sillimanite are placed at 54.3 lakh tonnes.
(25) Other Minerals
Other minerals occuring in significant quantities in India are as under:
(i) Bentonite (Gujrat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir and Tamil Nadu),
(ii) Corundum (Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh),
(iii) Calcite (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujrat),
(iv) Fuller’s Earth (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh),
(v) Felspar (Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh),
(vi) Garnet (Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh),
(vii) Steatite (Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar),



MINERAL AND METAL PRODUCTIONProduction of important minerals during 1997-98 to 2001-2002 (provisional is shown infollowing table):Note: Courtesy Research and Reference Division Ministry of Information and BroadcastingGovt. of India.M. Tonnes–Million tonnes, ’000–Tonnes-Thousand tonnes, M.C.M.–Million Cubic Metre,Kg.–Kilogram* The figure excludes the production of fireclay, if any recovered incidental to coal mining.(R) ‘R’ shows previous years figures repeated as current data have not been receivedyet.Note: (1) The value figures pertain to pithead value(2) Data based on the return received under MCDR, 1998 except coal, lignite petroleum (Crude),natural gas (utilised) and minor minerals:(a) Coal and Lignite: Coal Controller, Kolkata
(b) Petroleum (Crude) and Natural Gas: Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas, New Delhi.
(c) Minor Minerals: State Governments.
Environment Problem Created by Extracting and Mining
The environment side effect of extracting and mining projects can be studied in three
categories as under:
(i) Effect within and around the area covered by the dam and reservoir.
(ii) Underground effects caused by emptying of area.
(iii) Regional effects in terms of overall aspects inclusive of resources use and socioeconomic aspects.
(iv) It has also been participating in India Expeditions to Antarctica right from the very
first expedition.
GSI with its headquarters at Calcutta functions six regions, three specialised wings and
a training institute. Each year GSI takes up about 1100 investigations in geological mapping,
mineral assessment, geotechnical and environment studies, air borne geo-physical surveys
as well as geological and geophysical surveys in bordering seas. Output of these efforts is
in the form of scientific and technical reports, professional papers, maps and inventories and


various types of publications such as memoirs, records, bulletins, Indian minerals and
Palentologica Indica.
(2) Indian Bureau of Mines
Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) is a multi-disciplinary scientific and technical department.
Function
(1) It is primarily responsible for the conservations and scientific development of mineral
resources other than coal, petroleum, natural gas, atomic minerals and minor
minerals.
(2) It scrutinises mining laws before granting approval, undertakes inspection and
study of mines and research on beneficiation of low-grade ores and minerals and
on special mining problem.
(3) It provides technical consultancy service to the mining industry for survey and
geological appraisal of mineral resources and preparation of feasibility reports on
mining projects including beneficiation plants.
(4) It advises Central and state governments on all aspects of mineral industry, trade
and Legislation. IBM has its headquaters at Nagpur with 12 regional offices and
three well-equiped ore dressing laboratories and pilot plants.
(5) IBM function as a ‘data bank’ for mines and minerals and bulletins on different
connected subjects. Important publications are: Indian Minerals Year Book (Annual),
Bulletin of Mineral Information (Quarterly), Mineral Statistics of India (Half-yearly),
Monthly Statistical of Mineral Production, Foreign Trade in Mineral and Metals
(Annual) and Indian Mineral Industry at a Glance (Annual).
3. Public Sector Mining Undertaking
The Department of Mines has administrative responsibility for following undertakings:
(1) Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL)—Zinc and Lead
(2) Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL)—Copper
(3) Bharat Gold Mines Limited (BGML)—Gold
(4) Bharat Aluminium Co. Ltd. (BALCO)—Aluminium
(5) National Aluminimum Co. Ltd., (NALCO)—Alminimum
(6) Mineral Exploration Cooperation Ltd. (MECL)—Exploration
(7) Sikkim Mining Corporation—Copper, Zinc and Lead.
4. Hindustan Zinc Limited
Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL) was incorporated in January 1966 with the following
purposes:
(1) To take over operation of the erswhile Metal Corporation of India.
(2) To develop mining and smelting capacities for zinc and lead.
Beginning with 500 tonnes per day at Mochia in Rajasthan and 3,600 tonnes per year

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